As China, countries of Latin America and the African continent.59?1 In patients with incident (first seizure within the previous year) or prevalent epilepsy/epileptic seizures from countries other than India one usually sees multiple intracerebral lesions consisting of cysticerci in various stages including calcifications (Latin America,6,30,38,62 sub-Saharan Africa,3,7,42,63,64 Asia65?7). Often calcifications are the only pathology and most of the patients seem to be asymptomatic with it.6,38 The onset of seizure (whether incident or prevalent) certainly plays a role when it comes to the prevailing lesion and it can be assumed that cysticerci stage 2 and 3 are more likely to be seen in patients with recent-onset epileptic seizures, whereas calcifications may be the only pathology in chronic epilepsy simply because of the time factor.7,47 These different presentations of intracerebral NCC lesions and associated epileptic seizures not only seem to vary between countries but also between individuals. The presentation of single enhancing lesions may be a result of mild infection (single enhancing lesions are clustering in travellers and young people from India with relatively little exposure to the parasite) associated with the potential of the host to overcome the infection. A order Vorapaxar genetic predisposition may play a role in this process.60 Also, it is not well understood why most people with NCC lesions are asymptomatic,38 but evidence emerges that the individual reaction of the immune system may play a role and that there is a genetic predisposition of who will acquire symptomatic disease.The presentation of cysticercosis in sub-Saharan Africa clinically seems to be similar to that of Latin America, not only with regards to the appearance of the intracerebral lesions, but also with regards to its extraneural features. Subcutaneous cysticerci in patients with NCC are frequent in Asia, but rarely found in Latin America and unequally distributed in Africa.65,69 Subcutaneous cysticerci were reported in people who suffered from onchocerciasis but otherwise were healthy in the Northwest of Uganda70 and in people suffering from epilepsy in Togo,71 whereas thorough examination of almost 1400 people with epilepsy from highly endemic T. solium taeniosis/ cysticercosis areas of purchase Vorapaxar northern Uganda revealed absence of subcutaneous nodules (unpublished data). In a population of people with epilepsy and confirmed NCC from northern Tanzania, a few people showed calcified lesions in muscular tissues of unknown origin (incidental findings on X-ray), but none had palpable subcutaneous nodules (unpublished data). These differences in extraneural presentation of cysticercosis correlate well with the two main genotypes of T. solium that were found to exist worldwide: a pure Asian and a Latin American/ African mixed genotype.69,72,73 This genetic variation not only seems to contribute to the overall different clinical phenotypes of cysticercosis of the various continents, but may also impact on serological diagnoses of T. solium cysticercosis. Antigenic variations of T. solium cysticerci belonging to different genotypes can be postulated and was corroborated by findings of differences in immunoblot banding patterns when using cyst fluid from Asia compared to that from Latin America/Africa.69 Variation in genotypes may therefore impact on serodiagnosis and has to be considered when testing serum from people living in T. solium taeniosis/cysticercosis endemic areas with.As China, countries of Latin America and the African continent.59?1 In patients with incident (first seizure within the previous year) or prevalent epilepsy/epileptic seizures from countries other than India one usually sees multiple intracerebral lesions consisting of cysticerci in various stages including calcifications (Latin America,6,30,38,62 sub-Saharan Africa,3,7,42,63,64 Asia65?7). Often calcifications are the only pathology and most of the patients seem to be asymptomatic with it.6,38 The onset of seizure (whether incident or prevalent) certainly plays a role when it comes to the prevailing lesion and it can be assumed that cysticerci stage 2 and 3 are more likely to be seen in patients with recent-onset epileptic seizures, whereas calcifications may be the only pathology in chronic epilepsy simply because of the time factor.7,47 These different presentations of intracerebral NCC lesions and associated epileptic seizures not only seem to vary between countries but also between individuals. The presentation of single enhancing lesions may be a result of mild infection (single enhancing lesions are clustering in travellers and young people from India with relatively little exposure to the parasite) associated with the potential of the host to overcome the infection. A genetic predisposition may play a role in this process.60 Also, it is not well understood why most people with NCC lesions are asymptomatic,38 but evidence emerges that the individual reaction of the immune system may play a role and that there is a genetic predisposition of who will acquire symptomatic disease.The presentation of cysticercosis in sub-Saharan Africa clinically seems to be similar to that of Latin America, not only with regards to the appearance of the intracerebral lesions, but also with regards to its extraneural features. Subcutaneous cysticerci in patients with NCC are frequent in Asia, but rarely found in Latin America and unequally distributed in Africa.65,69 Subcutaneous cysticerci were reported in people who suffered from onchocerciasis but otherwise were healthy in the Northwest of Uganda70 and in people suffering from epilepsy in Togo,71 whereas thorough examination of almost 1400 people with epilepsy from highly endemic T. solium taeniosis/ cysticercosis areas of northern Uganda revealed absence of subcutaneous nodules (unpublished data). In a population of people with epilepsy and confirmed NCC from northern Tanzania, a few people showed calcified lesions in muscular tissues of unknown origin (incidental findings on X-ray), but none had palpable subcutaneous nodules (unpublished data). These differences in extraneural presentation of cysticercosis correlate well with the two main genotypes of T. solium that were found to exist worldwide: a pure Asian and a Latin American/ African mixed genotype.69,72,73 This genetic variation not only seems to contribute to the overall different clinical phenotypes of cysticercosis of the various continents, but may also impact on serological diagnoses of T. solium cysticercosis. Antigenic variations of T. solium cysticerci belonging to different genotypes can be postulated and was corroborated by findings of differences in immunoblot banding patterns when using cyst fluid from Asia compared to that from Latin America/Africa.69 Variation in genotypes may therefore impact on serodiagnosis and has to be considered when testing serum from people living in T. solium taeniosis/cysticercosis endemic areas with.
