., 2012; Authors, 2010; Voogt et al., 2013). An important feature of the Focus Theory of Normative Conduct is that social norms are posited to influence behavior when they are salient (Cialdini et al., 1990). Understanding the conditions under which descriptive versus injunctive norms are made more salient is of critical importance because it has important implications for intervention and theory. For example, if individual characteristics differentially impact the salience of different norms, then such knowledge could be used to target either descriptive or injunctive norms as part of an individually tailored intervention strategy to enhance the impact of existing norms interventions (Neighbors et al., 2008; Walters and Neighbors, 2005). We propose that individual differences in social goals will impact the degree to which an adolescent willAlcohol Clin Exp Res. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 December 01.Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptMeisel and ColderPageconform to descriptive and injunctive alcohol use norms. That is, social goals operate as moderators of the association between social norms and adolescent alcohol use, but these moderating effects will depend on the type of social norm as well as the specific nature of social goals. Social Goals Social goals refer to the value placed on appearing a certain way in social interactions and they are organized around a circumplex structure with two orthogonal axes that includes a vertical axis representing agentic goals and a horizontal axis representing communal goals and eight octants (Locke, 2003; Trucco et al., 2013). Agentic goals reflect a high value placed on status, respect and dominance, whereas communal goals reflect a high value placed on belongingness and closeness to one’s social networks (Ojanen et al., 2005). These goals are particularly relevant in adolescence as this is a period of increased interest in and focus on close interpersonal ties with peers (Collins and Steinberg, 2006). Moreover, adolescence is a period where youth strive for independence from parents and focus on achieving mastery and competence that will bring adult privileges and 3-Methyladenine web status (Collins and Steinberg, 2006). The nature of agentic and communal goals suggests that they may impact the salience of descriptive and injunctive norms, and hence conformity to these norms. Our prior work has provided some initial support for social goals moderating the influence of social norms on 3-Methyladenine price intentions to drink alcohol. Authors (2010) found that social norms were stronger predictors of intentions to drink for adolescents with high levels of communal goals. This study, however, was limited by examining intentions to drink in early adolescence using a cross-sectional design, and by combining descriptive and injunctive norms into a composite score. We look to extend this work by assessing the moderational role of social goals separately for descriptive and injunctive norms with a longitudinal design spanning early to middle adolescence. Moreover, the outcome of interest is alcohol use, rather than intentions to drink. Social Goals and Social Norms: A Moderational Model During adolescence, increased time and effort is spent on peer relationships and adolescents become increasingly attentive to the opinions of their peers as well as sensitive to peer approval (Collins and Steinberg, 2006; Steinberg, 2008). The increased focus on the peer context during adolescence is thought.., 2012; Authors, 2010; Voogt et al., 2013). An important feature of the Focus Theory of Normative Conduct is that social norms are posited to influence behavior when they are salient (Cialdini et al., 1990). Understanding the conditions under which descriptive versus injunctive norms are made more salient is of critical importance because it has important implications for intervention and theory. For example, if individual characteristics differentially impact the salience of different norms, then such knowledge could be used to target either descriptive or injunctive norms as part of an individually tailored intervention strategy to enhance the impact of existing norms interventions (Neighbors et al., 2008; Walters and Neighbors, 2005). We propose that individual differences in social goals will impact the degree to which an adolescent willAlcohol Clin Exp Res. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 December 01.Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptMeisel and ColderPageconform to descriptive and injunctive alcohol use norms. That is, social goals operate as moderators of the association between social norms and adolescent alcohol use, but these moderating effects will depend on the type of social norm as well as the specific nature of social goals. Social Goals Social goals refer to the value placed on appearing a certain way in social interactions and they are organized around a circumplex structure with two orthogonal axes that includes a vertical axis representing agentic goals and a horizontal axis representing communal goals and eight octants (Locke, 2003; Trucco et al., 2013). Agentic goals reflect a high value placed on status, respect and dominance, whereas communal goals reflect a high value placed on belongingness and closeness to one’s social networks (Ojanen et al., 2005). These goals are particularly relevant in adolescence as this is a period of increased interest in and focus on close interpersonal ties with peers (Collins and Steinberg, 2006). Moreover, adolescence is a period where youth strive for independence from parents and focus on achieving mastery and competence that will bring adult privileges and status (Collins and Steinberg, 2006). The nature of agentic and communal goals suggests that they may impact the salience of descriptive and injunctive norms, and hence conformity to these norms. Our prior work has provided some initial support for social goals moderating the influence of social norms on intentions to drink alcohol. Authors (2010) found that social norms were stronger predictors of intentions to drink for adolescents with high levels of communal goals. This study, however, was limited by examining intentions to drink in early adolescence using a cross-sectional design, and by combining descriptive and injunctive norms into a composite score. We look to extend this work by assessing the moderational role of social goals separately for descriptive and injunctive norms with a longitudinal design spanning early to middle adolescence. Moreover, the outcome of interest is alcohol use, rather than intentions to drink. Social Goals and Social Norms: A Moderational Model During adolescence, increased time and effort is spent on peer relationships and adolescents become increasingly attentive to the opinions of their peers as well as sensitive to peer approval (Collins and Steinberg, 2006; Steinberg, 2008). The increased focus on the peer context during adolescence is thought.
